PSYCHOLOGISTS AT WORK
Working Conditions
A psychologist's specialty and place of employment determine working
conditions. For example, clinical, school, and counseling psychologists
in private practice have pleasant, comfortable offices and set their own
hours. However, they often have evening hours to accommodate their clients.
Some employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health facilities
often work evenings and weekends, while others in schools and clinics work
regular hours. Psychologists employed by academic institutions divide their
time among teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Some
maintain part-time consulting practices as well. In contrast to the many
psychologists who have flexible work schedules, most in government and
private industry have more structured schedules. Reading and writing research
reports, they often work alone. Many experience deadlines, tight schedules,
and overtime work. Their routine may be interrupted frequently. Travel
may be required to attend conferences or conduct research.
Employment
Psychologists held about 144,000 jobs in 1994. Educational institutions
employed nearly 4 out of 10 salaried psychologists in positions involving
counseling, testing, special education, research, and administration; hospitals,
mental health clinics, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, and other
health facilities employed 3 out of 10; and government agencies at the
federal, state, and local levels employed one-sixth. The Department of
Veterans Affairs, the Department of Defense, and the Public Health Service
employ the overwhelming majority of psychologists working for federal agencies.
Governments employ psychologists in hospitals, clinics, correctional facilities,
and other settings. Psychologists also work in social service organizations,
research organizations, management consulting firms, marketing research
firms, and other businesses.
After several years of experience, some psychologists, usually those
with doctoral degrees, enter private practice or set up their own research
or consulting firms. A growing proportion of psychologists are self-employed.
Many persons hold positions as psychology faculty at colleges and universities,
and as high school psychology teachers, in addition to the jobs described
above.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
A doctoral degree generally is required for employment as a psychologist.
Psychologists with a Ph.D. qualify for a wide range of teaching, research,
clinical, and counseling positions in universities, elementary and secondary
schools, private industry, and government. Psychologists with a Psy.D.
(Doctor of Psychology) qualify mainly for clinical positions.
Persons with a master's degree in psychology can administer tests
as psychological assistants. Under the supervision of doctoral level psychologists,
they can conduct research in laboratories, conduct psychological evaluations,
counsel patients, or perform administrative duties. They may teach in high
schools or 2-year colleges or work as school psychologists or counselors.
A bachelor's degree in psychology qualifies a person to assist
psychologists and other professionals in community mental health centers,
vocational rehabilitation offices, and correctional programs; to work as
research or administrative assistants; and to take jobs as trainees in
government or business. However, without additional academic training,
their advancement opportunities in psychology are severely limited.
In the federal government, candidates having at least 24 semesters hours
in psychology and one course in statistics qualify for entry level positions.
Competition for these jobs is keen, however. Clinical psychologists generally
must have completed the Ph.D. or Psy.D. requirements and have served an
internship; vocational and guidance counselors usually need 2 years of
graduate study in counseling and 1 year of counseling experience.
In most cases, 2 years of full-time graduate study are needed to earn
a master's degree in psychology. Requirements usually include practical
experience in an applied setting or a master's thesis based on a research
project. A master's degree in school psychology requires about 2 years
of course work and a 1-year internship.
Four to 6 years of graduate work usually are required for a doctoral
degree. The Ph.D. degree culminates in a dissertation based on original
research. Courses in quantitative research methods, which include the use
of computers, are an integral part of graduate study and are usually necessary
to complete the dissertation. The Psy.D. is usually based on practical
work and examinations rather than a dissertation. In clinical or counseling
psychology, the requirements for the doctoral degree generally include
a year or more of internship or supervised experience.
Competition for admission into most graduate programs is intense. Some
universities require an undergraduate major in psychology. Others prefer
only basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical, and social
sciences, statistics, and mathematics.
Most colleges and universities offer a bachelor's degree program in
psychology; several hundred offer a master's and/or Ph.D. program. A relatively
small number of professional schools of psychology, some affiliated with
colleges or universities, offer the Psy.D. The American Psychological Association
(APA) presently accredits doctoral training programs in clinical, counseling,
and school psychology. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher
Education, with the assistance of the National Association of School Psychologists,
is also involved in the accreditation of advanced degree programs in school
psychology. The APA also accredits institutions that provide internships
for doctoral students in school, clinical, and counseling psychology.
Although financial aid is difficult to obtain, some universities award
fellowships or scholarships or arrange for part-time employment. The Veterans
Administration (VA) offers predoctoral traineeships to interns in VA hospitals,
clinics, and related training agencies. The National Science Foundation,
the Department of Health and Human Services, and many other organizations
also provide grants to psychology departments to help fund student stipends.
Psychologists in independent practice or those who offer any type of
patient care, including clinical, counseling, and school psychologists,
must meet certification or licensing requirements. All states and the District
of Columbia have such requirements. Licensing laws vary by state, but generally
require a doctorate in psychology, completion of an approved internship,
and 1 to 2 years of professional experience. In addition, most states require
that applicants pass an examination. Most state boards administer a standardized
test and, in many instances, additional oral or essay examinations. Very
few states certify those with a master's degree as psychological assistants
or associates. Some states require continuing education for license renewal.
Most states require that licensed or certified psychologists limit their
practice to those areas in which they have developed professional competence
through training and experience.
The American Board of Professional Psychology recognizes professional
achievement by awarding diplomas primarily in clinical psychology, clinical
neuropsychology, and counseling, forensic, industrial and organizational,
and school psychology. Candidates need a doctorate in psychology, 5 years
of experience, and professional endorsements; they also must pass an examination.
Even more so than in other occupations, aspiring psychologists who are
interested in direct patient care must be emotionally stable, mature, and
able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, compassion, and the
ability to lead and inspire others are particularly important for clinical
work and counseling. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed
work independently and as part of a team. Verbal and writing skills are
necessary to communicate treatment and research findings. Patience and
perseverance are vital qualities because results from psychological treatment
of patients or research often are long in coming.
Job Outlook
Employment of psychologists is expected to grow much faster than the
average for all occupations through the year 2005. Largely because of the
substantial investment in training required to enter this specialized field,
psychologists have a strong attachment to their occupation; only a relatively
small proportion leave the profession each year. Nevertheless, replacement
needs are expected to account for most job openings, similar to most occupations.
Programs to combat the increase in alcohol abuse, drug dependency, marital
strife, family-violence crime, and other problems plaguing society should
stimulate employment growth. Other factors spurring demand for psychologists
include increased emphasis on mental health maintenance in conjunction
with the treatment of physical illness; public concern for the development
of human resources, including the growing elderly population; increased
testing and counseling of children; and more interest in rehabilitation
of prisoners. Changes in the level of government funding for these kinds
of services could affect the demand for psychologists.
Job opportunities in health care should remain strong, particularly
in health care provided networks, such as health maintenance and preferred
provider organizations, that specialize in mental health, and in nursing
homes and alcohol and drug abuse rehabilitation programs. Job opportunities
will arise in businesses, nonprofit organizations, and research and computer
firms. Companies will use psychologists' expertise in survey design, analysis,
and research to provide personnel testing, program evaluation, and statistical
analysis. The increase in employee assistance programs, in which psychologists
help people stop smoking, control weight, or alter other behaviors, also
should spur job growth. The expected wave of retirement among college faculty,
beginning in the late 1990's, should result in job openings for psychologists
in colleges and universities.
Other openings are likely to occur as psychologists study the effectiveness
of changes in health, education, military, law enforcement, and consumer
protection programs. Psychologists are also increasingly studying the effects
on people of technological advances in areas such as agriculture, energy,
the conservation and use of natural resources, and industrial and office
automation.
Opportunities are best for candidates with a doctoral degree. Persons
holding doctorates from leading universities in applied areas such as school,
clinical, counseling, health, industrial, and educational psychology should
have particularly good prospects. Psychologists with extensive training
in quantitative research methods and computer science may have a competitive
edge over applicants without this background.
Graduates with a master's degree in psychology may encounter competition
for the limited number of jobs for which they qualify. Graduates of master's
degree programs in school psychology should have the best job prospects,
as schools are expected to increase student counseling and mental health
services. Some master's degree holders may find jobs as psychological assistants
in community mental health centers; these positions often require direct
supervision by a licensed psychologist. Others may find jobs involving
research and data collection and analysis in universities, government,
or private companies.
Bachelor's degree holders can expect very few opportunities directly
related to psychology. Some may find jobs as assistants in rehabilitation
centers or in other jobs involving data collection and analysis. Those
who meet state certification requirements may become high school psychology
teachers.
Earnings
According to a 1993 survey by the American Psychological Association,
the median starting salary of psychologists with a doctoral degree was $39,100
in counseling psychology, $39,000 in research positions, $40,000 in clinical
psychology, and $45,000 in school psychology. The median annual salary of master's degree holders was
$26,000 in counseling psychology, $24,000 in clinical psychology, $28,000
in research positions, $34,500 in school psychology, and $58,000 in industrial/organizational psychology.
Some psychologist have much higher earning potential, particularly those in private practice.
The federal government recognizes education and experience in certifying
applicants for entry level positions. In general, the average starting
salary for psychologists having a bachelor's degree was about $18,700 a
year in 1995; those with superior academic records could begin at $23,200.
Clinical psychologists having a Ph.D. or Psy.D degree and 1 year of internship
could start at $34,300; some individuals could start at $41,100. The average
salary for psychologists in the federal government in nonsupervisory, supervisory,
and managerial positions was about $58,300 a year in 1995.
Related Occupations
Psychologists are trained to conduct research and teach, evaluate, counsel,
and advise individuals and groups with special needs. Others who do this
kind of work include psychiatrists, social workers, sociologists, clergy,
special education teachers, and counselors.
Sources of Additional Information
(The above information is adapted from Drew Appleby's Marian College
Psychology Department Student Handbook, 1995, and the Occupational Outlook Handbook.)